Lecture

Distributive Justice and the Welfare State

This module focuses on Rawls's third principle of justice, known as the difference principle. Professor Shapiro examines its implications for income and wealth distribution, emphasizing:

  • The relationship between the least advantaged and the overall society.
  • Potential conflicts arising from the difference principle.
  • Rawls's approach to determining the basic structure of society.

Students will critically assess the principle's fairness and potential impacts on various societal outcomes.


Course Lectures
  • This introductory module sets the stage for the course by outlining the format and structure. Professor Shapiro presents the central question: What makes a government legitimate? He introduces five traditions of thought that will be explored throughout the semester:

    1. Utilitarianism
    2. Marxism
    3. Social contract theory
    4. Anti-Enlightenment traditions
    5. Democratic traditions

    Additionally, the module highlights the first topic of discussion: the Eichmann problem, which serves as a critical lens for analyzing governmental legitimacy.

  • This module focuses on the trial of Adolf Eichmann, drawing from Hannah Arendt's work, Eichmann in Jerusalem. Professor Shapiro engages students in a discussion about their discomfort regarding both Eichmann's actions and Israel's response.

    Key questions raised include:

    • What defines governmental legitimacy?
    • Was the Third Reich an illegitimate government?
    • Did Eichmann violate a higher law?

    Through class discussions, the module connects these questions to the previously introduced five traditions of political thought, paving the way for further exploration of John Locke.

  • In this module, Professor Shapiro delves into the Enlightenment period, using John Locke as a foundational figure. The discussion revolves around the key tenets of Enlightenment thought:

    1. Commitment to science for political order.
    2. The workmanship ideal.
    3. The equality of men and emphasis on individual rights.

    Students will explore whether the emphasis on individual rights supports resistance to authority, examining primary sources that illustrate the foundations of Enlightenment thinking.

  • This module introduces Jeremy Bentham's classical utilitarianism, an essential Enlightenment tradition. Professor Shapiro outlines the principle of utility from Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation, which states:

    “All men are pleasure-seeking and pain-avoiding.”

    The lecture covers five key characteristics of classical utilitarianism:

    1. Comprehensive and deterministic.
    2. Pre-Darwinian naturalist doctrine.
    3. Egoistic but not subjectivist.
    4. Highly consequentialist.
    5. Quantifiable utility and interpersonal comparisons.

    Class discussions revolve around the implications for government in maximizing happiness for the greatest number, including critiques through hypothetical scenarios.

  • Continuing the examination of classical utilitarianism, this module focuses on its distributive implications. Professor Shapiro discusses the principle of diminishing marginal utility and critiques it, engaging students in discussions about:

    • Radical redistributive aspects of utilitarianism.
    • Bentham's arguments on wealth distribution.
    • Contemporary case studies like Reagan's tax cuts and apartheid South Africa.

    The aim is to understand how classical utilitarianism interacts with real-world economic and social issues.

  • In this economics-focused module, the discussion revolves around neoclassical utilitarianism, as formulated by Vilfredo Pareto. Professor Shapiro examines concepts such as:

    • Indifference curves.
    • Transitivity.
    • The Pareto principle.
    • The Edgeworth box diagram.

    Students will learn how neoclassical utilitarianism departs from classical utilitarianism by eliminating interpersonal comparisons of utility, which leads to a more status quo-friendly doctrine.

  • This module examines John Stuart Mill's synthesis of rights and utility, which aims to address the shortcomings of Bentham's classical utilitarianism. Professor Shapiro highlights Mill's harm principle, which asserts that:

    “The only purpose for which one can interfere with the liberty of action of another individual is self-protection.”

    Moreover, Mill's emphasis on free speech and fallibility leads to discussions about the inconsistencies in his application of libertarian theory. The module encourages students to reconcile Mill’s perspectives with contemporary political issues.

  • Building on the previous module, this session explores the ambiguities of Mill's harm principle. Professor Shapiro poses critical questions:

    • Who calculates harm?
    • What defines "calculated" harm?

    These discussions lead to considerations of various topics, including:

    • Prostitution.
    • Same-sex marriage.
    • Marital rape.
    • Good Samaritan laws.

    Ultimately, the module argues that calculating harm necessitates political choices, challenging the Enlightenment ideal of replacing politics with science.

  • This module focuses on Karl Marx's theory of capitalism, analyzing how wealth is created at the micro level. Professor Shapiro introduces key concepts:

    • Labor theory of value.
    • Class-for-itself/class-in-itself distinction.
    • Surplus labor time.

    Marx critiques Adam Smith's notion of the invisible hand, arguing that capitalists exploit workers' surplus labor. The module sets the stage for understanding Marx's overall critique of capitalism.

  • Continuing the exploration of Marx's theory, this module delves into the concept of exploitation. Professor Shapiro clarifies that exploitation is a technical, not normative, concept within capitalism.

    Key points discussed include:

    • Capitalism's inherent issues leading to its eventual failure.
    • The transition from socialism to communism.
    • The implications of scarcity on superabundance.

    Ultimately, the module critiques the feasibility of Marx's vision while examining the conditions necessary for a successful transition to communism.

  • This module critiques Marx's predictions and theories, highlighting his failure to account for certain economic realities. Professor Shapiro discusses:

    • The ability of the state to support capitalism.
    • The absence of a declining tendency in profit rates.
    • Incoherence of the labor theory of value.

    Despite the shortcomings, Marx leaves two legacies: a critique of market distributions and a power-based argument about freedom, which remain relevant in contemporary discussions.

  • This module shifts focus back to social contract theory, centering on John Locke. Professor Shapiro discusses how modern theorists reconcile Locke's views with contemporary ideas, such as:

    • Kant's categorical imperatives.
    • The hypothetical thought experiment of creating a state.

    Students will examine Robert Nozick's contributions, particularly his views on coercive force and protective associations. The module raises questions about the legitimacy of dominant associations in society.

  • In this module, Professor Shapiro delves deeper into Nozick's theory of the minimal or night watchman state. This model emphasizes rights as side constraints rather than goals.

    Key discussions include:

    • The challenges of incorporating independents into society.
    • The role of compensation in legitimizing state actions.
    • Potential justifications for welfare states.

    Students will engage with Nozick's concepts, considering the implications of individual rights and consent within political structures.

  • This module continues the examination of Nozick's model, focusing on his threefold account of justice:

    1. Justice in acquisition.
    2. Justice in transfer.
    3. Rectification of past injustices.

    Professor Shapiro discusses how liberty can disrupt patterns of distribution and the implications for when government should intervene. The module raises questions about the nature of voluntary transactions and their impact on societal equality.

  • In this module, the focus is on John Rawls and his influential social contract theory. Professor Shapiro introduces Rawls's key concepts, including:

    • The original position.
    • The veil of ignorance.
    • Principles of justice.

    Students will engage with Rawls's arguments, particularly how they relate to considerations of fairness and equality, challenging them to think about the implications for modern society.

  • This module focuses on Rawls's third principle of justice, known as the difference principle. Professor Shapiro examines its implications for income and wealth distribution, emphasizing:

    • The relationship between the least advantaged and the overall society.
    • Potential conflicts arising from the difference principle.
    • Rawls's approach to determining the basic structure of society.

    Students will critically assess the principle's fairness and potential impacts on various societal outcomes.

  • In this module, Professor Shapiro discusses the evolution of Rawls's ideas, particularly his shift to a political, not metaphysical, approach. This marks a significant departure from previous Enlightenment thought.

    Key topics include:

    • Rawls's overlapping consensus.
    • Critiques of Enlightenment ideals.
    • The implications of rationality and individual rights.

    The module emphasizes the challenges faced by Enlightenment thinkers in reconciling scientific reasoning with individual freedoms.

  • The Burkean Outlook
    Ian Shapiro

    This module introduces Edmund Burke and his conservative views expressed in Reflections on the Revolution in France. Burke critiques the French Revolution and emphasizes the importance of gradual social change.

    Key themes include:

    • The social contract binding past, present, and future generations.
    • Traditionalism and the rejection of Enlightenment theories.
    • The importance of community and societal traditions.

    Students will analyze Burke's perspective on the relationship between individuals and society, and how it contrasts with Enlightenment ideals.

  • This module shifts to contemporary communitarianism, focusing on Richard Rorty's critique of Enlightenment philosophy. Professor Shapiro introduces Alasdair MacIntyre's communitarian views, which address the rise of emotivism and moral subjectivism.

    Key discussions include:

    • The rejection of justifying philosophy from indubitable premises.
    • The impact of deep pluralism on societal values.
    • MacIntyre's concepts of practices and virtues.

    Students will explore how communitarianism contrasts with individualistic Enlightenment thought.

  • This module continues the exploration of MacIntyre's argument, highlighting his Aristotelian account of human psychology. Professor Shapiro discusses two main features:

    1. Human nature as inherently teleological.
    2. Human behavior being fundamentally other-directed.

    Students will examine how ethics facilitate the transition from raw conditions to realizing one’s purpose, emphasizing the importance of norms and group values in shaping behavior.

  • This module transitions to democracy, emphasizing its success in upholding individual rights and objective knowledge. Professor Shapiro reviews critiques of democracy from notable thinkers:

    • Plato.
    • Tocqueville.
    • Madison.
    • Dahl.

    Students will analyze American democracy, discussing concepts such as tyranny of the majority and checks and balances.

  • This module continues the discussion on majority rule and democratic competition. Professor Shapiro raises questions about the legitimacy of collective decisions made by majority rule.

    Key topics include:

    • Utilitarian justifications for majority rule.
    • Rousseau’s concept of the general will.
    • Arrow's paradox and its implications for voting.

    Students will critically assess various models of democracy and their implications for governance and representation.

  • This module explores the relationship between democracy and justice. Professor Shapiro critiques Schumpeter's minimalist conception of democracy, emphasizing the expectation for justice from democratic regimes.

    Key features of the proposed theory of democratic justice include:

    • A broad conception of politics.
    • Distinctions between superordinate and subordinate goods.
    • Collective self-government and institutionalized opposition.

    Students will engage with the complexities of ensuring justice within democratic frameworks.

  • In this final module, Professor Shapiro applies his theory of democratic justice to practical scenarios, such as governance of children and workplace hierarchies.

    Key discussions include:

    • The state's role as a fiduciary for children's interests.
    • Parental responsibilities in child development.
    • Regulation of workplace hierarchies based on exit costs.

    Students will reflect on the implications of democratic justice in various contexts and consider its legacy in contemporary society.