This module continues the exploration of biomedical imaging technologies, focusing on MRI and ultrasound imaging. Professor Saltzman introduces functional MRI and its application in measuring tissue metabolic rates. The principles of ultrasound imaging are explained, emphasizing its ability to detect motion in real-time. Lastly, advances in nuclear imaging and light microscopy are discussed, highlighting their significance in medical diagnostics.
In this module, Professor Saltzman introduces the field of biomedical engineering, outlining its significance and practical applications. The syllabus is presented, along with essential reading materials and grading criteria. Students learn about various biomedical technologies, including medical imaging techniques and devices. The historical context of medical advancements is explored, highlighting past living standards versus current technologies, emphasizing the role of biomedical engineering in enhancing health and identifying areas for improvement.
This module delves deeper into biomedical engineering, starting with a review of students' assignments related to fundamental concepts. Professor Saltzman elaborates on two critical aspects: understanding human physiology and developing health-improving technologies. The concept of homeostasis is introduced, with discussions on the parameters that regulate this state. The structure of cell membranes, particularly phospholipids, is explained, highlighting its importance in cellular functionality.
In this module, Professor Saltzman introduces the molecular structure of DNA, detailing components such as the backbone and base pairing. The processes involved in gene expression, including DNA synthesis, transcription, and translation, are discussed. Particularly, the production of proteins like insulin is explored. Additionally, RNA interference is presented as a method to regulate gene expression, highlighting its potential in innovative disease treatments.
This module continues the discussion on DNA technology, focusing on gene expression control methods. Professor Saltzman reviews RNA silencing techniques, including anti-sense therapy and RNA interference. Molecular cloning methods are explained, detailing the use of plasmids, restriction enzymes, and ligases to produce proteins in bacteria. The module also covers techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and methods for detecting genetic mutations through gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting.
In this module, Professor Saltzman reviews gene therapy concepts and applications. He discusses various methods for delivering DNA into cells, including viral vectors and cationic lipids, addressing challenges in gene therapy. The physiology of bacterial and mammalian cells is introduced, covering tissue types and the cell differentiation process. The significance of anchorage dependence in mammalian cells and the role of the extracellular matrix in tissue formation are also highlighted.
This module focuses on embryogenesis and cell communication. Professor Saltzman discusses fertilization and the classification of stem cells, their origins, and potential therapeutic applications. Challenges in stem cell therapy are addressed, and the exponential growth equation for cells is introduced, explaining the concept of cell doubling time.
In this module, Professor Saltzman examines cell communication mechanisms, specifically ligand-receptor interactions crucial for maintaining homeostasis. Types of receptors, ligands, and their interactions are discussed, alongside developing drugs like Aldopa and beta-blockers. The module introduces three categories of cell signals: autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine, with a focus on blood sugar regulation as an example.
This module continues the exploration of cell communication, focusing on the nervous and immune systems. Professor Saltzman describes the transmission of signals in neurons and introduces elements of innate and adaptive immunity. The adaptive immune system's antigen recognition process involving T and B cells is discussed, providing a detailed view of immune responses and mechanisms.
Professor Saltzman addresses the significance of vaccines in this module, focusing on their biological basis and role in public health. The history of smallpox and vaccine development through Edward Jenner's work is reviewed. Methods for vaccine delivery to populations are introduced, along with a discussion on the potential reemergence of smallpox as a bioterrorism threat, emphasizing the importance of bioengineering in vaccine innovation.
In this module, the host immune response to pathogens is explored. Professor Saltzman discusses immunoglobulin release, T-cell activation, and memory cell production. The module also covers the production and distribution of the Salk polio vaccine, comparing it with the modern oral vaccine. Various bioengineering approaches to vaccine production are introduced, including attenuated and DNA-based vaccines, underscoring their impact on global health.
Professor Saltzman introduces pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in this module. Key concepts include the dose-response relationship and various drug administration routes affecting distribution and bioavailability. First-pass metabolism by the liver is identified as a crucial factor in drug degradation. The first-order rate equation for drug concentration in the body is explained, along with the concept of drug half-life.
This module reviews the pharmacokinetic first-order rate equation and its derivation from mass conservation principles. Professor Saltzman emphasizes maintaining therapeutic drug concentrations while avoiding toxicity. Strategies for localizing and sustaining therapeutic drug levels, such as incorporating slow-releasing biocompatible polymers, are discussed. Clinical applications of controlled drug delivery systems, including anti-restenosis drugs in stents, are highlighted.
In this module, Professor Saltzman discusses the biophysics of the circulatory system. Starting with blood vessel anatomy, the relationship between pressure difference and fluid flow is established. The module covers how blood flow is regulated across the body, tracing its journey through the circulatory system. Additionally, the heart's role as a pressure generator is explained, providing critical insights into cardiovascular physiology.
Continuing with cardiovascular physiology, Professor Saltzman examines electrical conductivity in the heart. The generation and propagation of action potentials in heart cells are explained, detailing the role of ion channels and pumps. The module covers the electrocardiograph's function and how its waves correspond to depolarization and repolarization events in different heart tissues, crucial for understanding heart function.
In this module, Professor Saltzman discusses blood flow dynamics through systemic and pulmonary circulatory systems. The events leading to blood flow are explained in relation to heart chamber contractions and valve functions. Key concepts such as systole, diastole, and cardiac output are introduced, emphasizing their interrelationships and importance in maintaining efficient circulation.
Professor Saltzman introduces renal physiology, covering kidney function and anatomy. The nephron's structure is detailed, explaining filtration, secretion, and reabsorption processes. Specific attention is given to glomerular filtration rate and how it is regulated by afferent and efferent arterioles, crucial for understanding kidney function and homeostasis.
This module continues the exploration of nephron physiology, focusing on the roles of different nephron segments in concentration gradient establishment. Various molecular transport processes that create urine from ultrafiltrate are discussed, including active transport and osmosis. The measurement of glomerular filtration rate using inulin is explained, along with sodium regulation's significance in maintaining homeostasis.
In this module, Professor Saltzman introduces the material properties of elasticity and viscosity relevant in biomechanics. Experimental setups to measure these properties are described, including the stress-strain relationship and Young's modulus. The concepts of ideal elastic materials and viscoelastic materials are discussed, emphasizing their relevance in modeling biomaterials used in various applications.
This module focuses on the significance of motion for living organisms. Professor Saltzman discusses various modes of motion, emphasizing force balance and energy efficiency in activities such as walking, running, and swimming. The drag force equation for spherical objects is introduced, and the design considerations for artificial hips based on biomechanics are explored.
In this module, Professor Saltzman reviews bioimaging techniques, starting with the electromagnetic spectrum and discussing various imaging methods. The history and principles of X-ray imaging are covered, along with its advantages and limitations. Computed Tomography is introduced as a method for creating 3D images through X-ray compilation, while concerns about radiation exposure are also discussed.
This module continues the exploration of biomedical imaging technologies, focusing on MRI and ultrasound imaging. Professor Saltzman introduces functional MRI and its application in measuring tissue metabolic rates. The principles of ultrasound imaging are explained, emphasizing its ability to detect motion in real-time. Lastly, advances in nuclear imaging and light microscopy are discussed, highlighting their significance in medical diagnostics.
In this final module, Professor Saltzman discusses tissue engineering's role in healing and organ replacement. He highlights current research on generating neo-tissues and controlling mechanical properties of engineered tissues. Specific examples from Yale scientists illustrate advancements in the field, emphasizing the potential of tissue engineering in drug delivery and studying human physiology.
In this module, Professor Saltzman explores the intersection of biomedical engineering and cancer treatment. The role of engineering technologies in diagnosing and treating cancer is discussed, alongside challenges such as tumor angiogenesis and drug localization. The phases of clinical trials, from I to IV, required for FDA approval of new drugs are outlined, emphasizing the contributions biomedical engineers can make to improve these processes.
This module concludes the course with a discussion on artificial organs, focusing on synthetic biomaterials. Professor Saltzman introduces the body's responses to foreign materials and discusses various polymer materials used in medical devices. The design and functionality of artificial organs, such as lens implants and heart valves, are covered, alongside the challenges faced in developing these technologies and areas for future improvement.